European Differences
Summary
1/1/2025 Reading time: 15 minutes
Flight planning and execution in Europe requires additional research and attention to detail. Knowing the differences ahead of time will give you a big leg up. Covering airports, slots, handlers, international trip support providers, fuel, flight planning, weather, NOTAMs, radio communications, CPDLC, PANS OPS, and fees. Buckle up for a 30,000-ft, rapid-fire highlight-reel of differences between US and European operations.
Details
Airports
In the US, we enjoy uniform operations at airports with exceptions. For the most part, you can plan and file a flight in minutes, show up to an FBO you've never been to, and take care of all services when you get on the ground.
In Europe, airports vary in requirements and procedures- consider each airport a unique operation. Some require paperwork or electronic forms to be filled out before arrival. Others have weight, wingspan, and time you can spend on the ramp limitations. And they are not always open. There could be nighttime closures, curfew hours, limited operations per day (due to noise), weekend closures, and early afternoon shutdowns for lunch breaks.
Everything is easier to accomplish on weekdays and non-holidays. The state AIPs, Jeppesen airport information charts, and the Jeppesen Airway manual all contain airport-specific information—more info about AIPs here. And you can often find pilot-centric details by looking up airport and handler websites.
There is often no FBO on the field. Instead, a local handler arranges services for you—some places require the use of a handler. Your handler is your most important contact to pre-arrange services, ensure a smooth operation, and pay the bill. More on handlers in a bit.
Sometimes, Information Services are available at smaller airports. This Qazi tower/ CTAF service provides weather and traffic information and, most importantly, counts your airport usage to assess fees. A towered airport almost always requires a startup clearance before engine start.
Slots
Large or busy airports have arrival and departure slots arranged through a handler. You usually have a +-15-minute window to meet your slot, or you have to refile, which puts you at the back of the line. Set your passengers' expectations accordingly. Slot confirmations need to be included in the remarks section (block 18) of your ICAO flight plan.
Similar to slots is A-CDM (Airport Collaborative Decision Making) - think super slots. It is implemented at the 33 busiest airports and more are in the works. You can find all the airports and the specific procedures here.
The system manages airport load and keeps aircraft at the gate until your departure time instead of having a line of aircraft, engines running, at the runway. At a specified time, usually +- 5 min, you report ready for pushback and engine start.
And this is where it gets confusing for GA aircraft. A-CDM is written primarily for airlines at gates whose TOBT (Target Off Block Time) is when they get a pushback, followed by engine start at their TSAT (Target Startup Approval Time). GA aircraft are reversed. You start up first, then start rolling out of the blocks on taxi. So you have to think like an airline. Your TOBT is when your doors are closed, and you are ready for engine start. Your TSAT may vary depending on the ATC and local airport procedures.
So, to simplify, call for your clearance 30 minutes before your filed flight time. They may give you an estimated TSAT, or you can ask for one. Since you have no pushback, the TSAT could be the same as your TOBT (filed time). At TSAT (+-5 min), call for clearance to start engines. Call ready to taxi, and expect minimum delays through taxi and takeoff. If you miss your window (usually +-5 min), you need a new TOBT, and you are put at the back of the line. Advising ATC you are ready early could possibly get you an expedited clearance, but temper your passenger's hopes.
Handlers
Handlers handle the details of your flight. In many places, they are the closest thing to an FBO. Your local handler may not have a hangar, terminal, or fuel truck of their own and rely on arranging services through airlines or third-party vendors. Your handler can arrange other flight details, such as slots, ETOBs, flight plans, customs, immigration, billing, local paperwork, vendor connections, and assist with local airport procedures—all for a fee. You can find handlers via Foreflight FBOs, AIP airport information, Jeppesen Airway Manual airport information, or by looking up websites.
International Trip Support providers are also handlers. These handlers handle the handlers. Local handlers take care of their airport, where trip support handlers provide a holistic solution for your operation by interfacing with local airports, governments, and vendors worldwide. They may contract a local handler to arrange airport details while working with aviation authorities for overflight permits (if required) and with your contract fuel providers to obtain fuel releases—for a fee.
You decide how much to delegate to your International Trip Support providers. They can arrange everything for you—a great option if you're new to an area—or you can work directly with local handlers—or anywhere between.
Unless you routinely conduct the same operation, having a knowledgeable partner in the ever-changing international landscape is beneficial. Another huge perk is that they consolidate the accounting into a single bill (and currency). However, they manage hundreds of flights daily, and details can slip through the cracks. Trust but verify.
Here are a few international trip support provider options to research:
Fuel
Fuel is in liters and Euros/Pounds/Franks. Prist is not pre-mixed into Jet-A. Prist aerosol cans are rarely on-site and is considered HAZMAT to carry, so work with your handler and plan ahead if you need positive Jet-A. Depending on whether you are a commercial or private aircraft, you may pay a different price. In Germany, for instance, private aircraft pay an additional fuel tax. Don't worry; if you're commercial, they will get their money in other ways.
Fuel releases from contract fuel providers are required before uplift—no release, no fuel, and no working it out after the fact. If you are set up with a few providers, you can get fuel anywhere in the world. Here are three to consider:
The European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) has different reserve fuel requirements from the FAA's. To paraphrase the FAA's regulation (91.167): carry enough fuel to fly to your destination, your alternate, and 45 extra minutes at normal cruise. If your destination airport has an instrument approach and forecast weather meets the 3-2-1 rule, you can exclude the alternate.
EASA has its own rules, but as a non-EASA operator, you'll be under ICAO's. ICAO has two different fuel reserve requirements based on aircraft weight and engines. Both are in ICAO Annex 6, Volume II. The first (2.2.3.6) applies to aircraft under 12,500 lbs and is the same as the FAA regulation. The second (3.4.3.5) applies to heavier aircraft and jets - and is much more complicated:
Minimum Fuel = Taxi + Trip + Contengincey + Alternate + Final Reserve + Additional + Discretionary fuel
Taxi = APU/Startup to Takeoff
Trip = Takeoff to Landing (including approach if one is expected)
Contingency (unforeseen factors fuel) = 5% of Trip fuel
Alternate = Missed Approach + Climb to Cruise + Routing to Alternate + Descent + Approach and Landing at Alternate
OR if no alternate is required = 15 min at holding speed and 1500 AGL
OR if isolated destination = Turbine: lesser of 2 hrs or 45 min + 15% enroute time. Piston: 2 hrs
Final Reserve = 30 min at holding speed at 1500 AGL (turbine) or 45 min (piston)
Additional = fuel to meet enroute diversion requirements in the event of engine failure or loss of pressurization (think ETPs over the ocean)
Discretionary = any additional fuel not included in the above
Shortcut: Foreflight can calculate ICAO/ FAA/ EASA fuel requirements for you in Dispatch. It is a valuable dropdown option for creating compliant flight plans. Under Advanced Fuel Options, you can select Fuel Reserve Policies.
Of the available options, EASA Part NCC is for non-commercial with complex motor-powered aircraft, meaning greater than 12,500 max weight, or more than 19 passenger seats, or more than one required crewmember, or a jet, or multiengine turboprop. EASA Part NCO (non-commercial with other-than-complex motor-powered aircraft) is for smaller stuff. However, you are looking for the ICAO option as the two EASA selections apply to EASA operators, not foreign operators.
Notice that the alternate fuel requirement includes routing to your alternate airport, not direct routing. Within Foreflight Dispatch, selecting alternate routing is an option you can configure.
Flight Planning
In the US, you can go until you can't. In Europe, you can't go until you can.
In the US, you could file a Direct flight plan from the East to the West Coast at the end of the runway and takeoff within five minutes. Outside of the occasional ground stop at TEB or Jacksonville/ ski country flow control initiatives, you can depart and handle any route changes in the air.
Eurocontrol approaches flow management much differently. They must incorporate 41 jurisdictions in half the airspace and manage enroute slots in and around complicated special use airspace and route-specific altitude restrictions.
Run by the Central Flow Management Unit (CFMU), this centralized system requires users to submit a flight plan that meets all the filing restrictions. The system validates all the routes, airway slots, Military SUA, and altitude requirements, and if it passes the test, your flight plan is Eurocontrol Validated.
Only Validated flight plans can be filed. Good news: Foreflight Dispatch incorporates this feature. If it is not a valid flight, you can see why that is the case. Eurocontrol has this portal for further explanations of error codes. Alternatively, you can punt and let your International Trip Support provider produce a valid flight plan.
The benefit of this system is that you can expect your clearance to match what you filed. You may have a different SID or STAR, but for the most part, you actually fly what you meticulously planned. And it is detailed. The flight plan could have over 100 waypoints and several altitude changes.
More tips: Plan a route to your alternate airport, not direct. For private flights, you do not have to worry about overflight or landing permits (different than slots). SUA is everywhere on the charts but is not always active. Don't expect a visual approach unless you are flying VFR. GPS waypoints are always five digits but might contain numbers (DF363, DF362, DF473 for example, shown in the below briefing strip).
Transition Levels and Altitudes
We are spoiled by simplicity in the US. At 18,000 ft, up or down, we reset altimeters. Technically, we have a transition altitude of 17,000 climbing and a transition level of FL180 descending.
The transition in Europe is airport-specific and sometimes varies based on current atmospheric pressure. Located on a chart or assigned in a METAR report, your transition altitude (climbing) could be anywhere from 3000 to 17000 ft.
Let's say it's at 5000ft. Above 5000, you are in the flight levels, and you select standard pressure. Altitude assignments will be given by flight level, such as "climb and maintain flight level 090."
On the way down, the transition level may be FL060. Below this, you set local altimeter pressure. For example, "descend 4000 ft, QNH 1020." It is so easy to forget to transition at the correct altitude!
METAR/TAF
Know your units!
Western Europe wind is reported in Knots. Russia and the Stans counties utilize meters per second, as indicated by KT or MPS on METARs and TAFs. To convert: MPS*2 = KTS
Visibility is reported in meters, including RVR. Visibility of 9999 = 10SM on METARs or P6SM on TAFs. CAVOK (ceiling and visibility okay) = unrestricted visibility and clear of clouds. Here are the official visibility conversions:
For whatever reason, clouds are reported in feet AGL everywhere- even Russia. Mixing metric and imperial systems seems like a bad idea, but hey, the FAA does it with temperature, so why not?
There are three kinds of Pressure: QNH, QNE, and QFE.
QNH = inHg (FAA) or hPa (most of Europe). Set local pressure.
QNE = Set Standard Pressure. Standard = A29.92 (inHg) or Q1013 (hPa)
QFE = mm (Some Russia/ Stans) Standard = QFE760
Here is a conversion chart if your avionics cannot change from inHg to hPA units:
QFE is a whole different animal. It uses millimeters, and you set a pressure to indicate altitude AGL on your altimeter instead of MSL. For more information on QFE operations, click here.
NOTAMs
ICAO NOTAMs are formatted differently from the familiar domestic version. Here is an example to illustrate:
FAA:
DSM 03/085 DSM RWY 05/23 CLSD 2404010330-2407012300
ICAO:
B0667/24 NOTAMN
Q) KZMP/QMRLC/IV/NBO/A/000/999/4132N09340W005
A) KDSM
B) 2404010330
C) 2407012300
E) RWY 05/23 CLSD
Yep, six lines of data. The FAA planned to switch to this format by December 2024, but that has been delayed until late 2025. For a full write-up on interpreting ICAO NOTAMs, see this article.
Radio Communication
Radios are the most challenging part of flying around Europe. The ATC phraseology is different and unfamiliar. ATC controllers have wildly different accents as you pass from one country to the next, and most are not native English speakers. Another illustrative example:
"Gulfstream 12345, Chicago center, radar contact, at pilot's discretion, descend and maintain one-one thousand, contact Chicago approach on 132 point 5, altimeter 29 point 65."
"N12345, Langen control, identified, when ready, descend flight level one-one-zero, contact Langen radar on 118 decimal 505, QNH 1004."
Whoops, I forgot to turn on the accent:
"No-vem-bah vhun two dree foh fife, Langen control, identeefied, vhen ready, descend flight level vun-vun-zero, contact Langen radar on vhun-vhun-eight decimal fife-zero-fife, QNH vun-zero-zero-foh."
For you sharp-eyed pilots, the Langen transcript isn't 100% correct. If instructed to descend to a flight level, the QNH value would not be included. This is a clue as to whether you are above/below the transition level/altitude for your airport.
Here is a Eurocontrol phraseology resource. See the below contrasting US vs Europe radio verbiage highlights:
"Radar Contact" = "Identified"
"125.25" (25kHz frequencies) vs. "125.505" (8.33kHz frequencies)
"Point" = "Decimal" Altimeter setting and radio frequencies.
"Approach" = "Radar"
"Center" = "Control"
No abbreviated call signs: include "November" in all readbacks.
"Descent Pilots Discretion" = "When Ready Descend"
VFR squawk: 1200 vs. 7000
The UK is an anomaly compared to the rest of the world regarding surveillance services in uncontrolled airspace (Air Traffic Services Outside Controlled Airspace, ATSOCAS). You can request four levels of ATC surveillance: Basic, Traffic, Deconfliction, and Procedural. If asked, you want Deconfliction Services. This is the only one where ATC will point out traffic and give heading/ altitude suggestions to avoid conflicts.
Lost Communications
Summarizing the lost communication procedures in CFR 91.185:
If in VFR conditions, land as practical in VFR conditions.
If in IFR conditions:
Route (in order): Assigned, Vectored (direct to back on course), Expected, Filed
Altitude (highest of): Assigned, Minimum IFR altitude, Expected
Clearance Limit: unless you are in a hold, you won't have an expert-further-clearance time, and your clearance limit is your destination airport. And if you are flying your highly accurate flight plan, you probably will arrive at your planned ETA. So, to simplify, if in a hold, leave it at your EFC and shoot an approach or go to where an approach starts. If no hold, aim to begin your approach at your ETA.
Around Europe, ICAO sets the rules. ICAO Annex 2 - Rules of the Air, Chapter 3, Section 3.6.5.2 - Radio Failure Procedures, covers lost communications. Another summary:
If in VFR conditions, land at a suitable airport in VFR conditions (so far, so good).
If in IFR conditions:
Route: if being vectored, get back on course by the next fix. If on course, stay on your flight plan course.
Altitude: comply with a transition period, then fly your filed flight plan altitude.
If in radar contact, your transition period is 7 minutes. The timer starts the later of reaching the assigned/minimum altitude, squawking 7600, or missing a compulsory reporting point. During the 7 minutes, you fly your last assigned or minimum altitude (if higher). After the 7 minutes, you fly your flight plan altitudes.
Outside of radar, your transition period is 20 minutes. This timer starts when you miss a compulsory reporting point. But otherwise, it is the same. Fly your assigned or minimum altitude for 20 minutes, then your filed altitude.
Clearance Limit: Like the FAA, if you're on your flight plan, you'll likely arrive on time, so commence an approach at your ETA and get on the ground within 30 minutes of ETA. If given an expected approach time (i.e., a hold), leave the hold at that time and shoot an approach.
ICAO sets the rules, but each country can adopt or change them. If a country modifies the regulation, it is published in the state AIP. In this case, GEN 1.7 - Differences from ICAO Standards, Annex 2 - Rules of the Air, Chapter 3, Section 3.6.5.2 - Radio Failure Procedures would contain the differences. Luckily, radio failure procedures are largely harmonized for IFR traffic, but this process of looking up differences is essential when dealing with ICAO regs. Check out ICAO Documents and AIPs for a refresher.
CPDLC
Above FL285, Eurocontrol mandates ATN CPDLC equipage. ATN (Aeronautical Telecommunications Network) is a ground-based VHF datalink network independent of the satellite-based FANS 1/A datalink network.
There are exemptions from the equipage mandate (focusing on GA aircraft):
Any aircraft with a certificate of airworthiness before Jan 1, 1995.
Aircraft with FANS 1/A and an airworthiness certificate before Jan 1, 2018.
Aircraft with 19 or fewer passenger seats, and a MGTOW less than 100,000 lbs, and an airworthiness certificate before Feb 5, 2020.
Aircraft flown for testing, delivery, maintenance, or operating un der CPDLC MEL relief.
King Air 90/100/200/300 series aircraft (+1 for Textron lobbying)
And these aircraft with an airworthiness certificate before Feb 5, 2020: GLEX/GL5T, C25C, C56X, F2TH, F900, E50P, E55P, E35L, PC12.
If you do not have ATN CPDLC (or CPDLC MEL'd inop), include DAT/CPDLCX in block 18 of your ICAO flight plan.
In addition to equipment requirements, there is a growing list of logon requirements depending on the country and altitude flown. Make your life easy: if you have it, log on!
But wait a minute! Before you do, you must reach out to the Eurocontrol Datalink Team:
ectl_nm_datalink_team@eurocontrol.int
They can set up access to the Logon List Dashboard, where you can register your aircraft. This vetting process ensures your avionics are compatible with the ATN network. More info here.
Once equipped and registered, file J1 in block 10 and your HEX code in block 18 (i.e., CODE/ABC123). Now you're set to logon.
PANS OPS
Terminal Instrument Procedures (TERPS) is where the FAA defines how approaches, SIDs, and STARs are designed. PANS OPS is the ICAO equivilant (ICAO Doc 8168 Vol I & II). There are important differences in how you fly IFR procedures based on the spec of the country you are flying in.
Looking in a state AIP, General 1.5.1 will show which spec is used. Hint: most of the world is PANS OPS. More information has already been said about PANS OPS here, but a quick refresher:
A complete course on the subject delves deeper. Here are two training options:
CDFA
Another European difference in instrument approaches is Continuous Descent Final Approach (CDFA) operations—no diving and driving on the approach path. Stay high as long as possible and execute one descent down to the missed approach point. With today's modern avionics, this means following VNAV to the FAF, then GS/GP/VNAV down to the DA/MAP. Easy enough. Pre-VNAV required quick VS mental math to arrive at MDA at MAP.
There is a caveat. If descending to an MDA, make sure you don't descend below MDA on your CDFA path. You must initiate a go-around before arriving at the actual MDA to avoid going below it. Your aircraft manufacturer may specify an autopilot loss altitude during go-around (50-70 feet) that you should add to MDA. This altitude adjustment is called a DDA (Derived Decision Altitude).
Suppose you are armed with LOA C073, Vertical Navigation (VNAV) Instrument Approach Procedures (IAP) Using Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) as a Decision Altitude (DA)/Decision Height (DH). In that case, you can, in some situations, fly a CFDA down to a MDA before commencing a missed approach. More information can be found in AC 120-108.
Fees $€£₣
Fees, fees, fees. You've never seen fees like these fees. General Aviation in Europe is a pay-to-play, a-la-carte, user-funded system. Below is a list of fees you may encounter on an invoice:
Central Route Charging Office (CRCO) enroute charges
DFS air navigation and terminal charges
Handling
Apron
Parking
Ramp
Ground Handling
Towing
Airport
Navigation
Approach
Landing
Concession
Vendor Administration
Agent Disbursement
Agent Handling
Customs
Immigration
Lavatory
Noise Charges
Emissions
Precision runway monitor
Variable Starting
Security
After Hours
Holiday
Weekend
Fuel surcharge
Communication
Supervision
Overtime
Permits
Passenger Services
Fuel hookup
Low fuel volume
Split Handling
Security Screening
Departure
Marshaling
Go-Around (no joke, but was waived since the go-around was due to a runway incursion)
Departure Slot Coordination
Landing Slot Coordination
Airway Slot Coordination
Catering
Coffee
Crew and Passenger Transport Coordination
Flight Following
Flight plan
Weather Briefing
Customs
Hotel Coordination
Fuel Coordination
Oil Coordination
Aircraft Detail
Conveyance Access
Oxygen to breath
Blinking surcharge
Partridge in a Pear Tree
Last but not least, a 15-27% VAT Tax.
A downer way to end it- but forewarned is forearmed. Just think of all the wonderful things you will see, taste, and experience around Europe!
Swiss Alps
Aviate
Look into a Foreflight Dispatch subscription.
If ATN CPDLC equipped, contact the Eurcontrol Datalink Team (ectl_nm_datalink_team@eurocontrol.int) to access the Logon Dashboard.
Register your aircraft and update flight plan codes to include J1.
If not equipped, update your flight plan code 18 to DAT/CPDLCX.
Set up an account with an International Trip Support provider. It will require a detailed submission of your aircraft and operation in advance: Universal, UAS, Jeppesen, ARINC
Sign up for one or several contract fuel providers: AvFuel, World Fuel Services, BP
Consider taking an international operations training course: Scott IPC, 30 West IP
